One in five jobs in the EU classified as vulnerable

Close to one in five jobs in the EU (19%) could be classified as vulnerable – a multidimensional phenomenon encompassing income inadequacy, employment insecurity and lack of workplace rights. Eurofound’s new report, Employment and working conditions of the most vulnerable workers: Addressing an ongoing policy challenge analyses the prevalence of vulnerability from 2009 to 2021.

On a national level, Spain was shown to have the highest level of vulnerability in the EU, with 29% of workers falling below the threshold in at least one of these dimensions. Vulnerability was also high in Portugal (25%), Luxembourg (25%), and Italy (24%). Hungary (17%), Malta (18%) and Bulgaria (18%) recorded the lowest levels of vulnerability.

Overall, employment vulnerability increased across the EU following the 2007–2008 financial crisis, driven mainly by the growth of involuntary temporary and part-time work. It has declined steadily since 2016 and is now below pre-crisis levels, though significant differences remain between Member States in both the extent and nature of vulnerability.

In continental Member States such as Germany and Austria, alongside central and eastern Europe, income inadequacy emerges as the dominant dimension of vulnerability. Conversely, employment insecurity is more prevalent in Mediterranean and Nordic Member States.

Crucially, the data reveal that non-standard employment does not inherently imply vulnerability; rather, risk intensifies when these arrangements are involuntary or when multiple non-standard characteristics intersect. Demographic fault lines further complicate the picture, as women, young workers, migrant or foreign-born workers, Roma, persons with disabilities, and LGBT+ individuals are disproportionately likely to experience vulnerable employment due to structural disadvantages and workplace stereotypes. For instance, women face persistent difficulties combining working life with family responsibilities, while migrant workers have to contend with legal regulations and the recognition of qualifications.

Amidst these challenges, the data highlight a critical protective factor: each additional year of work experience reduces the likelihood of vulnerability by 1 percentage point, culminating in a substantial 20-percentage-point reduction over a 20-year career.

The consequences of vulnerability on job quality are non-linear, as employees experiencing vulnerability in a single dimension report mixed outcomes, occasionally performing better than non-vulnerable staff in certain areas. However, the strongest negative effects emerge when multiple vulnerabilities accumulate. Multidimensional vulnerability is consistently associated with poorer job quality, leading to weaker career prospects, limited access to training, lower decision-making autonomy, and unpredictable earnings.

While physical health indicators show no significant differences between vulnerable and non-vulnerable employees, the mental toll is distinct; workers experiencing multidimensional vulnerability exhibit higher rates of anxiety and depression, even though they are less likely to report work-related stress.

European and national policy frameworks, guided by Principle 5 of the European Pillar of Social Rights and the European Commission’s December 2025 Quality Jobs Roadmap, seek to balance economic flexibility with robust protection. To safeguard job quality while enabling competitiveness, future policy must pivot toward integrated responses that concurrently address job-related, individual, and intersectional factors.

Frameworks must continue to offer flexibility to employers and workers while preventing the abuse of atypical work and regulating zero-hours contracts. Furthermore, effective regulation relies on expanding labour inspection capacity, securing accessible complaint procedures, and ensuring regular compliance monitoring.

As digitalisation and AI reshape work, continuous regulatory reviews are required to safeguard job quality while enabling innovation. This should be in addition to legislation, policy, and awareness-raising to tackle direct disadvantages linked to personal characteristics and ensure equal access to quality jobs.

More information:

• Download the report: Employment and working conditions of the most vulnerable workers: Addressing an ongoing policy challenge
• Listen to the Eurofound Talks podcast: Employment and working conditions of the most vulnerable workers